Arabian oryx? / Wild Ox, Aurochs?, ראם, Oryx leucoryx? / Bos Primigenius?

The Aramaic Targums present relatively consistent renderings of ראם. The Samaritan Targum uses רימה in Num 23:22 and 24:8, while Neofiti and Psuedo-Jonathan use רימנא for Deut 33:17. 11QtgJob possibly renders Job 39:9 as ראמא, but the text is fragmentary. Similarly, the Peshitta consistently renders ראם as ܪܝܡܐ.

The Septuagint (LXX) is generally followed by the revisions A, S, and T (with the exception of A in Job 39:9) and renders ראם as μονοκερως (-ωτος), which is often translated as “unicorn” in the English and reflected in the text of the KJV. The one exception to this is Isa 34:7 which reads άδροι, sometimes translated as “mighty ones.”

There is some variance in the Vulgate which renders ראם as either as rinocerotis (Num 23:22; 24:8; Deut 33:17; Ps 29:6; Job 39:9–10) or unicornes (Isa 34:7; Pss 22:22; 92:11).

The Arabic translations either transcribe the name, or follow the Aramaic/Syriac, with ألرئم (Num 23:22; 24:8; Deut 33:17); or they use the compounds ألبقر آلوحشي (“the wild cattle,” Isa 34:7; Pss 22:22; 29:6; 92:11); ألثور آلوحشي (“the wild bull,” Job 39:9, 10), designating the wild nature of that animal.

From the preceding evidence in the history of identification, three candidates are possible for the natural identification of the ראם: the rhinoceros, oryx, and wild ox. However, as will be discussed below the oryx and the wild ox appear to be the most plausible options.

The rhinoceros (rinocerotis in the Vulgate) is an understandable rendering of μονοκερως (“single-horn”) as there are some species of rhinoceros that have a single horn. However, these species (Indian Rhinoceros rhinoceros unicornis and the related Javan Rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus) only occur naturally in East Asia, and though they were known to the Greeks as early as the time of Ctesias there is a question as to whether there would have been knowledge of either species in the Levant (Caird 1969, 23).

Turning to the oryx and the wild ox, it can be noted that both species were known in the Levant and seem to fit the biblical data’s description of an animal with prominent horns (Müller 2004, 245; Caird 1969, 23). Moreover, both species could fit the literal rendering of μονοκερως as both animals could appear to have a single horn when seen from a side profile.[3] That being said, there are questions as to how well this description of a single-horned animal fits portrayals of the wild ox. Thus, though Müller (2004, 247) suggests that the LXX rendering might have arisen from “profile images” of the wild ox, such as the Ishtar gate (Babylon) that show the wild ox with one horn, Caird (1969, 23) points out that other images from Egypt, such as the Vapheio cups, clearly show the wild ox with two horns (Müller 2004, 247; Caird 1969, 23). Therefore, if the wild ox were the species for ראם it is unclear why the LXX renders the term with the descriptive μονοκερως. Caird further notes that there is no conclusive evidence that this was the term used for the wild ox in ancient Greek (Caird 1969, 23). Similarly, the Peshitta uses the same term (ܪܝܡܐ) for both ראם and דישון in Deut 14:5, which could refer to the ibex or species of antelope (Müller 2004, 245).

Finally, there is the option that the ראם references the fantastic creature, the unicorn, which would have been known in Hellenistic thought (ibid.). However, such an interpretation derives from the LXX, and is not necessarily reflected in the other versions (notably Hebrew and Aramaic) (Caird 1969, 23). Furthermore, as discussed above, the term μονοκερως can refer to known, naturally occurring creatures.

[1] Macho 1974, 288 translates this as “buffalo.”

[2] Column XXXII, line 8 of 11QtgJob is fragmented and only shows the letters רא and part of the letter מ. Der Ploeg and Der Woude 1971, 74-75 suggest the word was written ראמא, translates it as le buffle, and suggest the word is repeated in the missing fragment of line 9. A photographic image of the column can be seen in Der Ploeg and Der Woude 1971, 123.

[3] Caird 1969, 23 notes that this is especially true for the oryx and postulates this could be a possible source for the fantastic creature the unicorn.

Caird, G. B. 1969. “Towards a Lexicon of the Septuagint. II.” The Journal of Theological Studies 20: 21–40.

Macho, Diez. 1974. Neophyti 1: Targum Palestinense Manuscrito de la Biblioteca Vaticana. Tomo IV. Números. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.

Müller, H. P. 2004. “ראם.” Pages 243–247 in vol. 13 of Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck et al. Translated by David E. Green and Douglas W. Scott. 16 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Van Der Ploeg, J. P. M. and Van Der Woude, A. S. 1971. Le Targum de Job de la Grotte XI de Qumrân. Leiden: Brill.

Arabian oryx

Class: Mammal
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Genus: Oryx
Species: Oryx leucoryx

The Arabian oryx is the smallest of the four species of the genus Oryx and the only one found outside Africa (Stewart 1963). Its body mass is ca. 80‒100 kg (Ostrowski et al. 2003). White in color, its legs are dark brown or black; it also has dark patches on its forehead, nose, chin, and neck. It is characterized by two long straight, slim horns (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999; Griver 1991). Although no significant sexual dimorphism is evident, the adult males are slightly larger than the adult females (Price 1989).

Distribution and habitats: The Arabian oryx’s original distribution was across most of the Arabian Peninsula north of Kuwait and Iraq, including Sinai, Israel, and Jordan (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2017). By the mid-twentieth century, it had become extinct in the wild due to uncontrolled hunting. It has now been reintroduced in some areas in its distribution range (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2017). In Israel, it appears to have become extinct by the middle/end of the nineteenth century (Dolev & Perevolotsky 2002). Since 1997, the species has begun being reintroduced in the Negev Desert (Griver 1991; Gilad et al. 2008). The population is currently estimated to be ca. 100‒150 individuals.

The Arabian oryx occupies various arid and hyper-arid habitats, being capable of surviving low rainfall, high ambient temperatures, and sandy winds (IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2017). In Israel, it lives in the central and eastern Negev, occupying open landscapes in the arid desert — streams, gravel plains, sands, and salt marshes (Dolev & Perevolotsky 2002; Shalmon 2015).

Sociality: Oryx customarily live in herds of ten or fewer, of both genders. Herds of tens are also commonly seen, however (Nowak 1999; Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999). Herds exhibit a rigid social hierarchical structure, each having a dominant male, which breeds with the females, and a dominant female, which leads the herd (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999).
Period of activity: Oryx are diurnal. Seeking shade during the day, they hide under vegetation or dig deep hollows with their horns and hooves (Stewart 1963).

Diet: Annuals, shrub foliage, and acacia trees (Shalmon 2015). Oryx can live in very arid conditions, not requiring large amounts of water (e.g., Williams et al. 2001; Ostrowski et al. 2002).

The oryx’s reproductive season varies according to environmental factors. Under favorable conditions, the female can give birth to one calf per annum, all year around (Stewart 1963; Nowak 1999). The gestation period lasts ca. 8‒8.5 months, the litter consisting of a single calf (Griver 1991; Nowak 1999). In captivity, it reaches sexual maturity between the ages of 2.5 and 3.5 (Abu Jafer & Hays-Shahin 1988). In the wild, the oryx can live for up to 17 years (Price 1989; Griver 1991).

Horns: The Arabian oryx’s horns are long and narrow, curving slightly backwards. At their base, they are ca. 12 cm in diameter, gradually tapering into a pointed tip. Reaching 70 cm in length (Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999), they have given rise to its identification with the mythical unicorn, probably due to observation of oryx in profile, when the two horns as appear as one (e.g., Griver 1991; Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999; Bartov 2000). The species’ noble appearance prompted medieval European knights to describe its members as “beautiful white horses, on whose forehead grows only one horn” (Bartov 2000). Lacking speed, its horns serve as its most effective form of defense, pointing forward when it lowers its head (Griver 1991; Nowak 1999). They also determine intra-species social structure, the hierarchy between males being primarily determined by physical struggles that occasionally develop into battles in which the male seeks to embed his horns in his opponent’s chest (Shalmon 2015). They further function as digging implements, supplementing the use of their hooves (Stewart 1963).

Power: In arid habitats, the oryx is unequaled in power and splendor. Contra most ungulates, it fights rather than flees, lowering its head and attacking with its horns parallel to the ground. Its natural enemies — the hyena, wolf, and leopard — are thus very wary of it (Bartov 2000). Unfortunately, its strength and courage have been heavily responsible for its extinction in the wild, hunters with firearms easily slaughtering animals running towards them with only their horns as weapons (Bartov 2000).

Human use: The oryx and its ponderous elegance is a frequent theme in Arabian poetry (Price 1989), also being the subject of rock paintings in the Eilat area, eastern Sinai, and southern Jordan (Dolev & Perevolotsky 2002). The ancient Greeks were familiar with the fact that oryx were reared in captivity in Egypt. Aristotle also records that the growing horns of young oryx were fused together (Price 1989). Local Bedouins traditionally hunted the oryx for its meat (Price 1989; Bartov 2000). In the twentieth century, they began being hunted for sport, hunters employing machineguns and cars (e.g., Price 1989; Mendelssohn & Yom-Tov 1999; IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2017).

Abu Jafer, M.Z., and C. Hays-Shahin. 1988. “Re-introduction of the Arabian Oryx into Jordan.” Pages 35–40 in Conservation and Biology of Desert Antelopes. Edited by A. Dixon and D. Jones. London: Christopher Helm.

Bartov, A. 2000. “A Legend that is Almost Extinct.” Green Blue and White: Journal of the Economy and Economy Forum for the Environment 31 (Hebrew).

Dolev, A., and A. Perevolotsky. 2002. Red Book of Threatened Species in Israel–Vertebrates. Jerusalem: Nature and Parks Authority/Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel.

Gilad, O., W.E. Grant, and D. Saltz. 2008. “Simulated Dynamics of Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx) in the Israeli Negev: Effects of Migration Corridors and Post-reintroduction Changes in Natality on Population Viability.” Ecological Modelling 210(1–2): 169‒78.

Griver, S. 1991. Focus on Israeli—Reintroducing Biblical Wildlife. Jerusalem: Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group. 2017. “Oryx leucoryx: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T15569A50191626. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T15569A50191626.en

Mendelssohn, H., and Y. Yom-Tov. 1999. Mammalia of Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

Nowak, R.M., and E.P. Walker. 1999. Walker’s Mammals of the World. Vol. 1. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Ostrowski, S., J.B. Williams, and K. Ismael. 2003. “Heterothermy and the Water Economy of Free-living Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx).” Journal of Experimental Biology 206(9): 1471‒78.

Price, M.R.S. 1989. Animal Reintroductions: The Arabian Oryx in Oman. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Shalmon B. 2015. My Desert. Eilat: Shalmon (Hebrew).

Stewart, D.R.M. 1963. “The Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx pallas).” African Journal of Ecology 1(1): 103‒17.

Williams, J.B., S. Ostrowski, E. Bedin, and K. Ismail. 2001. “Seasonal Variation in Energy Expenditure, Water Flux and Food Consumption of Arabian Oryx Oryx Leucoryx.” Journal of Experimental Biology 204(13): 2301‒11.