Quail, שלו, Coturnix coturnix

All occurrences of שְּׂלָו in the Hebrew Bible relate to a bird the Israelites ate in the wilderness. Despite lacking any direct Hebrew basis, the apocryphal passages that refer to a bird in the same episode (Wis 16:2, 19:12; 2 Esd 1:15) are also taken into consideration here.

The Septuagint consistently renders שְּׂלָו as “quail-mother” (ὀρτῠγομήτρα: ὄρτυξ “quail” + μήτηρ “mother”). According to LSJ, the term refers to “a bird which migrates with quails, perhaps corncrake, landrail, Rallus crex.” The lexeme ὄρτυξ does not occur anywhere in the Septuagint.

The Targumim mostly render שְּׂלָו by its Aramaic cognate סלו (quail). The Peshitta consistently uses the equivalent slwy (quail). Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Exod 16:13, Targum Neofiti marginalia on that verse, and Targum of Psalms all employ forms of פסינא (pheasant), however. The Vulgate alternates between coturnix (quail) and ortygometra—a transliteration of the Greek ὀρτῠγομήτρα (quail-mother) used by the Septuagint.

The Quail belongs to the Phasianidae family, part of the Galiformes order (Cramp & Simmons 1980). 10 species of quails currently exist in the world, but just one species (coturnix coturnix) occurs in the wild in Israel (Del Hoyo et al. 1994, Shirihai 1996).

Sub–species in Israel and the Levant

Several sub–species of the common quail exist in Central, East, and South Africa, and Madagascar (Alderton 1992). Only one sub–species—Coturnix c. coturnix—is native to Israel and the Levant.

Recent studies evince that most re–released quails are genetically contaminated, being a hybrid between this species and the well–known domesticated species Coturnix japonica (Puigcerver et al. 1999; Barilani et al. 2005; Amaral et al. 2007; Sanchez–Donoso et al. 2012). The genetic infection constitutes a clear and present danger to the quail’s survival and migration (Sanchez–Donoso et al. 2014; Perennou 2009; Derégnaucourt 2000).

Morphology. The species is characterized by a plump body, short tail, short broad wings, and strong short legs (Cramp & Simmons 1980).

• Measures and Weights. The smallest member of its family in Israel and the Levant, its length is 16–18 cm, its wingspan 32–35 cm, and it weighs between 70 and 155 gr. (Cramp & Simmons 1980).
• Colors. The quail generally camouflages itself. The male differs in color from the female throughout the year, exhibiting sharper tones—a black throat, yellowish–brown body, streaked back and sides, creamy belly, a large and varied head pattern, and dark collar around his neck. Although the young resemble the female, it always has stripes under the cheek (Cramp & Simmons 1980; Del Hoyo et al. 1994).

Habitat. The quail is to be found from the northern borealis zone through to the temperate zone, steppe, and Mediterranean regions. It avoids snow and extreme desert areas (Cramp & Simmons 1980), generally preferring warm zones (Huntley et al. 2007). It frequents open areas, such as grain fields and vegetation–rich environments (also for nest shelter), and eschews forest fringes and fences (Johnsgard 1988; Sardà–Palomera et al. 2012). It is attracted to heavily fertilized crops, perhaps due to the size and density of the seeds (Tryjanowski et al. 2005; Blüthgen et al. 2012). It is unaffected by changes in cultivated areas (Cramp & Simmons 1980). A study using radio transmitters conducted on East German farmland indicates that quails prefer medium–sized vegetation in dense, weed–covered, sandy soil (Herrmann & Dassow 2006).

The quail lays 8–13 eggs in the ground. The chicks emerge altogether, open–eyed and self–feeding after 16-17 days of incubation (Ainsworth et all 2010). Although they leave the nest site after 11 days, they only reach full sexual maturity at less than one year (Glutz von Blotzehim et al. 1973). In their natural habitat, they live a maximum of 11 years (Del Hoyo et al. 1994). The quail’s long–distant migratory habits make it a vulnerable species—one of the chief factors affecting in the size of its population (Sanderson et al. 2009).

General Distribution and Population. The quail has a wide Palearctic distribution (Johnsgard 1988; Del Hoyo et al. 1994). Its principal breeding distribution ranges from Eurasia and the Near–East through to North Africa, India, and China (Alderton 1992; Hoffmann 1988; Del Hoyo et al. 1994). Almost all its populations winter primarily in Africa and Southeast Asia, most commonly in the desert and semi–desert regions of the sub–Saharan belt, where they make themselves active amongst the dense vegetation (Cramp & Simmons 1980; Moreau 1966).

Distribution and Population in Israel. The quail is a regular passenger across most parts of the country, although uncommon (small numbers) in winter and summer (especially in the Beit Shean Valley and Judean Desert). It also rarely breeds in the north and central valleys (Shirihai 1996; Svensson et al. 1999). According to Tristram (1884), tens of thousands return in one night in March. Many also remain to breed in open plains, marshes, and corn fields in the Jordan basin and north of the country.

Flight. Its short, wide wingspan gives the quail a large wing load (Cramp & Simmons 1980). Its wings are significantly longer than other members of the same family, however, allowing it to fly fast and low in quick flaps over short distances to escape danger (Svensson et al. 1999). 

Migration and Appearance in the Eastern Mediterranean. The peak of migration in the autumn is mid–September, the spring peak being April (Cramp & Simmons 1980; Moreau 1972). In Israel, the spring migration climaxes between 8 March and 8 April, mostly in the center and east of the country. The autumn peak is between 9 September and 22 September, occurring most commonly along the Mediterranean coastline (Shirihai 1996).

Migration customarily takes place at night, young chicks less than two months old being reported as passengers (Johnsgard 1988; Alderton 1992). This species is the only one in its family to exhibit in a long–term migration pattern. The various Old World populations of the sub–species Coturnix c. coturnix follow three principal migration routes: 1) the Near East to east Africa (the Syria–Egypt route); 2) the Central Europe region to central Africa (the Italy–Tunis route); and 3) the West–Atlantic region to north and west Africa (the Iberia–Morocco route) (Handrinos & Akriotis 1997). These long distant migratory habits place the quail at risk, forming one of the primary contributing factors to the reduction in its population (Sanderson et al. 2009).

In addition to Israel and the Levant, large numbers of quail also arrive from the northeastern populations, from Mongolia (route 1). Those that land on the shores of Gaza and Sinai come from central Europe and Turkey (route 2) (Baha el Din et al. 1989). These then migrate south to the Sahara, primarily across Senegal to Ethiopia and Kenya (Cramp & Simmons 1980; Del Hoyo et al. 1994). Some wandering in this species was observed from Tunisia to Morocco and vice versa (route [3]; Toschi 1956).

A Hunted Bird because Edible. Ancient Egyptian art—tombs at Sakkara, Thebes, and El–Arish, for example—depicts the quail as hunted with nets for food, being an edible bird (Moyal 2007). Today, it is still a gourmet meat, heavily hunted during the autumn migration, particularly in the Mediterranean (Gallego et al. 1997; Puigcerver et al. 1999; Sardà–Palomera et al. 2012). Its gastronomic value has led to its being extensively hunted in southern European (e.g., Catalonia) and other countries (Garrido 2012). It is also bred in large numbers in order to ensure the availability of sport–hunting from the end of the breeding season to the beginning of the next one (Rodríguez–Teijeiro et al. 2003).

Coturnism. Poisoning by quail flesh has been documented since antiquity (Aristotle). Most cases, the symptoms are generalized weakness, progressing to severe muscle pain and lower limb paralysis accompanied by fever and voice loss—followed by death from cardiac or kidney failure. Quail are toxic in Algeria and France during the northward spring migration. This pattern is reversed in Greece and the Soviet Union, where they are poisonous on the southern autumn flight. Current evidence suggests that seeds from the Stachys annua may serve as the mediating mechanism (Lewis et al. 1987).

Diet. Although an omnivore, the quail feeds primarily on plant–rich proteins—such as cereals and legumes—and insects and their larvae (Johnsgard 1988; Alderton 1992). It forages for food principally early in the morning and late in the afternoon (Dement’ev et al. 1966). Quail meat can be used as an alternative choice because it contains high high level protein (Kartikayudha et al., 2013).

It also feeds on flax and lupine (Herrmann & Dassow 2006), prior to embarking on its autumn migration also eating poisonous plant seeds such as Stachys sp. and Helleborus sp. of the Ranunculaceae family (Lewis et al. 1987).

Breeding and Nesting. Quail are customarily monogamous, the couple bond often being very strong (Johnsgard 1988). In rare cases, they also engage in bigamous and polygamous relations (Naumann 1833). During breeding season, the species is both solitary and territorial (Ali & Ripley 1969). The chicks reach sexual maturity at one- year old (Glutz von Blotzehim et al. 1973).

Most European quail populations breed for the first time in March–April, in North Africa and the Mediterranean basin. They then migrate to their principal breeding zones in central and northern Europe for a second breeding cycle in late May to July (Guyomarc’h et al. 1998). Quails hold up to two nesting cycles which take place in Europe ground in mid-May to August; but in Africa, they have up to three nesting cycles— from between the end of August to March (Johnsgard 1988). This species nestles primarily in grains and low dense vegetation, which hides them well (Moreau & Wayre 1968; Guyomarc’h & Guyomarc’h 1992).

According to a study based on well–controlled serenity, males are very nomadic, most not remaining longer than two weeks at a single site (Herrmann & Dassow 2006). Reaching the nesting sites before the females, they immediately commence courting rituals—loud territorial songs. Later, these become gentle and rhythmic, being rapidly repeated (Svensson et al. 1999).

When the females arrive, they locate the potential nesting site and begin responding to the males with soft attraction calls. The ritual continues with the males approaching in circular dances while squeezing their chest feathers, lowering their wings, stretching their necks, and uttering soft cries (Glutz von Blotzehim et al. 1973; Johnsgard 1988).

The nest—a shallow pit built on the grass and filled with available vegetation—is prepared by the female alone (Cramp & Simmons 1980; Johnsgard 1988). She lays 8–13 white eggs (Hoffmann 1988), which take 17–20 days to incubate (Alderton 1992). In Europe, the quail nests twice between May and August. In Africa, they nest up to three times between late August and March.

On some occasions, two females lay eggs in the same nest (Johnsgard 1988)—or, more rarely, in those of related species (Casas et al. 2006; Cramp & Simmons 1980; Yom-Tov 2001; Rodríguez–Teijeiro et al. 2003). While the eggs hatching asynchronously, the chicks are all the same age (Cramp & Simmons 1980).

Although the chicks may leave the nest as early as 11 days old (Alderton 1992; Hoffmann 1988; Johnsgard 1988), they usually do so after 19 days, becoming independent after between 30 and 50 days (Cramp & Simmons 1980).

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