Grain, עֲבוּר / שֶׁבֶר / בָּר / דָּגָן, Triticeae

The Hebrew Bible contains four common nouns that appear to correspond to the English “grain” in seeming to refer to various kinds of cereal crops (especially wheat and barley)—in particular the edible seeds of these plants.

דָּגָן (dāgān) occurs 40 times in the Hebrew Bible, typically in conjunction with תִירֹשׁ and יִצְהָר.[1] Only occasionally does it appear on its own (Joel 1:17; Pss 65:10; 78:24; Neh 5:2, 3, 10). Its absence from direct narrative outside the late books of Nehemiah and Chronicles and wisdom literature suggests that it belongs to a poetic register.[2]

בָּר (bār) occurs approximately 14 times, the precise number being difficult to determine because it cannot easily be distinguished from its homonyms in several instances.[3] Five of its certain incidences appear in the Joseph cycle in Genesis.

שֶׁבֶר (šeber) occurs 9 times.[4] It is clearly related to the verb שׁבר (x 21). בָּר, שֶׁבֶר, and the verb שׁבר are remarkably coincident, all appearing together in the Joseph cycle in Genesis (בָּר x 5; שֶׁבֶר x 7; שׁבר x 14) and Amos 8:5–6 (בָּר and שׁבר: x 2 each; שֶׁבֶר: once).

עֲבוּר (ăbûr) only occurs twice, as a noun (Josh 5:11, 12).[5]

דָּגָן occurs:

• 14 times in prophecy (Isa 62:8; Jer 31:12; Ezek 36:29; Hos 2:10, 11, 24; 7:14; 9:1; 14:8; Joel 1:10, 17; 2:19; Hag 1:11; Zech 9:17) and six times in prophetic oratory (Deut 7:13; 11:14; 12:17; 14:23; 18:4; 28:51).
• 13 times in narrative—within elevated speech (Gen 27:28, 37; 2 Kgs 18:32 // Isa 36:17) and late texts (Neh 5:2, 3, 10, 11; 10:40; 13:5, 12; 2 Chr 31:5; 32:28).
• Thrice in psalmody (Pss 4:8; 65:10; 78:24), once in lamentation (Lam 2:12), and once in the poetic blessing of Asher (Deut 33:28)
• Twice in the priestly laws relating to offerings to priests (Num 18:12, 27).

בָּר occurs:

• Five times in narrative (Gen 41:35, 49; 42:3, 25; 45:23).
• Four or five times in prophecy (Jer 23:28; Joel 2:24; Amos 5:11[?]; 8:5, 6).
• Twice in psalmody (Pss 65:14; 72:16).
• Once, twice, or thrice in wisdom literature (Job 39:4[?]; Prov 11:26; 14:4[?]).

שֶׁבֶר occurs:

• Eight times in narrative (Gen 42:1, 2, 19, 26; 43:2; 44:2; 47:14; Neh 10:32).
• Once in prophecy (Amos 8:5).

The two incidences of עֲבוּר occur in narrative (Josh 5:11, 12).

The “fat” of דָּגָן (חֵלֶב: Num 18:12) corresponds to the “fat” of wheat (Deut 32:14; Pss 81:17; 147:14).

בָּר, שֶׁבֶר, עֲבוּר: none.

דָּגָן symbolizes bounty, especially that of the Land of Israel (Gen 27:28, 37; Deut 7:13; 33:28; 2 Kgs 18:32 // Isa 36:17; Jer 31:12; Ezek 36:29; Hos 2:10, 11, 24; Joel 2:19; Pss 4:8; 65:10).

Manna is said to be the דָּגָן of heaven (Ps 78:24). In realistic references, it denotes sustenance (Lam 2:12; Neh 5:2, 3), being associated with threshing floors (Num 18:27; Hos 9:1), gathered in (Deut 11:14), stored (Joel 1:17; 2 Chr 32:28), lent (Neh 5:10, 11), portions brought to the Temple (Num 18:12; Deut 12:17; 14:23; 18:4; Neh 10:40; 13:5; 12; 2 Chr 31:5), consumed by enemies (Deut 28:51; Isa 62:8), or locusts (Joel 1:10, 17), and failing in drought (Hag 1:11).

בָּר serves as a metaphor for God’s true word vs. false dreams (Jer 23:28). In realistic references, it is poured into heaps (Gen 41:35, 49), fills containers (Gen 42:25) and threshing floors (Joel 2:24), is transported on jennies (Gen 45:23), bought (Gen 42:3), levied (Amos 5:11[?]), sold (Amos 8:5, 6), and withheld (Prov 11:26).

The realistic references of שֶׁבֶר pertain to its availability in Egypt to residents of the land of Israel in times of famine (Gen 42:1, 2; 42:19; 43:2), transportation on donkeys (Gen 42:26), and sale (Amos 8:5; Neh 10:32) in exchange for silver (Gen 44:2; 47:14).

The realistic references of עֲבוּר allude to its preparation for eating by making into unleavened cakes and roasting (Josh 5:11). The עֲבוּר of the Land of Israel replaces the manna in the wilderness (Josh 5:12).

דָּגָן almost always occurs first in series of food items representing bounty, especially that of the Land of Israel, thus being equivalent to wheat and barley in Deut 8:8; Joel 1:11–12; and 2 Chr 2:9, 14; and to wheat in Ezek 27:17. It is typically collocated withתִירֹשׁ  andיִצְהָר  (Num 18:12; Deut 7:13; 11:14; 12:17; 14:23; 18:4; 28:51; Jer 31:12; Hos 2:10, 24; Joel 1:10; 2:19; Hag 1:11; Neh 5:11; 10:40; 13:5, 12; 2 Chr 31:5; 32:28). On occasion, it appears solely with תִירֹשׁ (Gen 27:28, 37; Deut 33:28; 2 Kgs 18:32 // Isa 36:17; Isa 62:8; Hos 2:11; 7:14; 9:1–2; Zech 9:17; Ps 4:8) or other terms:גָּפֶן  (Hos 14:8),יָיִן  (Lam 2:12),מְלֵאָה  (Num 18:27),פְּרִי הָעֵץ  andתְּנוּבַת הַשָּׂדֶה (Ezek 36:29–30).

בָּר is followed by “food” and “nourishment” as provisions for a journey (בָּר וָלֶחֶם וּמָזוֹן [Gen 45:23]), contrasted with straw (תֶּבֶן [Jer 23:28], and followed by תִירֹשׁ and יִצְהָר (Joel 2:24)—thus being equivalent to דָּגָן (see above). It is paired with שֶׁבֶר (Amos 8:5) and “flocks” (צֹאן [Ps 65:14]), possibly also paralleling “produce” (תְּבוּאוֹת [Prov 14:4]).

שֶׁבֶר is paired with בָּר (Amos 8:5) and “wares” (מַקָּחוֹת [Neh 10:32]).

Both occurrences of עֲבוּר are in the construction עֲבוּר הָאָרֶץ “the עֲבוּר of the land [of Israel]” (Josh 5:11, 12).

[1] BDB: corn, grain (of cereals); HALOT: corn, grain; DCH: corn, cereal grain.

[2] This pattern is not sufficiently appreciated by Ringgren 1978, 141.

[3] BDB, II. בַּר: corn; HALOT, III בַּר: clean, threshed grain; DCH, בַּר I: grain.

[4] BDB, III. שֶׁ֫בֶר: corn, grain (as food stuff); HALOT, II שֶׁבֶר: grain (does not occur in Job 39:4); DCH, שֶׁ֫בֶר I: grain.

[5] BDB, I. [עָבוּר]: produce, yield; HALOT: produce; DCH, [עָבוּר]‎ I: produce, perhaps specifically corn, grain. The preposition/conjunction בַּעֲבוּר, which is listed as a separate lexeme in BDB and DCH but not in HALOT, occurs 49 times in the Hebrew Bible.

Ringgren, Helmer. 1978. “dāghān; dāghôn.” Pages 139–142 in vol. 3 of Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.