Castorbean, קִיקָיוֹן, Ricinus communis

The Septuagint translates κολόκυνθᾰ (a kind of gourd); Justin Martyr renders σικυωνος (cucumber); The Peshitta’s šrwr’ dqr’’ refers to a gourd or a gourd-like plant.

Another Greek translation, attributed to Symmachusand Aquila, is κισσός, which accords with the Vulgate’s consistent rendering hedera. Both the Greek and Latin terms mean “ivy”. A translation attributed to Aquila and Theodotion is κικεωνα—apparently a transliteration of the Hebrew. Targum Jonathan likewise simply copies the word (קִיקָיוֹן).

In the narrative, the plant is said to grow in the vicinity of Nineveh (which lay on the east bank of the Tigris River in modern-day Mosul, Iraq). Reaching a sufficient height to provide shade for a human within a few days or less, it withered from worm infestation within several hours. While the narrative of Jonah is fanciful, the author and his readers were presumably familiar with the plant as one that is found in the Near East, can provide shade, and grows quickly. Herodotus (Hist. 2.94) describes what the Egyptians call κίκι in a manner that matches the castorbean, Ricinus communis.[1] The phonetic distinctiveness of κίκι and its similarity to קִיקָיוֹן leave little doubt that the castorbean is meant, this also being the modern scholarly consensus (Löw 1924–1934, 1:608–611; Feliks 1968, 136–138; 1997, 228–230; Zohary 1982, 193; Amar 2012, 177–180).

Dr. Giulia Francesca Grassi adds:

The Egyptian word kꜣkꜣ is interpreted as “castor” purely on the basis of Greek κίκι. Egyptian medical texts making no mention of its fruit, seeds, or oil and the determinative for “tree” never being used, the identification of kꜣkꜣ with “castor” (or a similar plant) is problematic (Germer 2008, 144).^[2] If the Hebrew qîqāyôn is an Egyptian calque, it does not necessarily signify “castor”—the translations reflecting this difficulty in never employing its equivalent; (no one word for “castor” is common across several Semitic languages, the possible but uncertain Akkadian šagabigalzu itself being a loanword from Kassite).

The translation “gourd” is puzzling, not corresponding to the floral description in Jonah. As Carsten Niebuhr reports, it was nonetheless still popular amongst Jews and Christians in Mosul and Aleppo during the eighteenth century: “Les Chrétiens et les Juifs de Mosul et de Háleb veulent, que la Khrerroa ne soit point la plante dont l’ombre couvrit Jonas, mais ils dissent, que c’étoit une sorte de citroüille Elkerrá qui a de très grandes feuilles, porte un fruit très gros et qui d’ailleurs ne dure qu’environ quatre mois” (Niebuhr 1774, I, 130–131). (The Syriac qrˀ and qrˁˀ, Jewish Babylonian Aramaic qrˀ, qˀrˀ and qrˁˀ, and Arabic qarˁ and qarˁatun all denote “gourd.”)

^[1] Dioscorides (Mat. med. 1.38) calls this plant Κίκινον.

[2] The Egyptian word for “castor” is almost certainly dgm (Germer 2008, 164–165)—which Imperial Aramaic renders as tqm.

Dictionaries (AhW, 1125; CAD Š/1, 61–62; DJBA, 1037; DNWSI, 1228; Dozy II, 332; Thes. Syr., 3720).

Amar, Zohar. 2012. Flora of the Bible. Jerusalem: Rubin Mass (Hebrew).

Feliks, Yehuda. 1968. Plant World of the Bible. Ramat-Gan: Masada (Hebrew).

Feliks, Yehuda. 1997. Trees: Aromatic, Ornamental, and of the Forest. Jerusalem: Rubin Mass (Hebrew).

Germer, Renate. 2008. Handbuch der altägyptischen Heilpflanzen. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

Löw, Immanuel. 1924–1934. Die Flora der Juden. Vienna: Löwit/Leipzig: Kohut.

Niebuhr, Carsten. 1774. Description de l’Arabie: faite sur les observations propres et des avis recueillis dans les lieux même. Amsterdam: Hachette livre-BNF .

Thompson, R. Campbell. 1949. A Dictionary of Assyrian Botany. London: British Academy.

Zohary, Michael. 1982. Plants of the Bible. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Angiospermae

Class: Dicotyledoneae

Order: Malpighiales

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Genus: Ricinus

Species: Ricinus communis

Ricinus communis (Castor-oil plant) belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is a perennial shrub native to eastern Africa, India, and the south-eastern Mediterranean region (Figueiral et al. 2021). Nowadays, Ricinus is an invasive species found across the globe (Goyal, Pardha-Saradhi, & Sharma 2014). It is pollinated primarily by the wind and/or insects, the seeds are self- or ant-dispersed (Martins et al. 2006; Navatha & Sreedevi 2012). Its high oil content and potent ricin toxin made R. communis a common form of medication and fertilization, etc., from ancient times onwards (Jena & Gupta 2012). It still possesses significant economic value (Figueiral et al. 2021).

Ricinus communis is a perennial plant, it has a life span of between two and three years. In Israel, it is an evergreen plant with a relatively long flowering period (late February to early December). The fruit forms between early April and mid-July, ripe fruit lasting from late July through to mid-September. Seed dispersal occurs between the end of September and early January (https://flora.org.il/plants/riccom), the seeds remain viable for several years.

Rapid growth. Janick, Paris, and Parrish (2007) identify the qîqāyôn that shades Jonah in Nineveh with the Ricinus communis. The book of Jonah also refers to it as a “wonder tree” in light of its rapid growth (Franke, Scholl, & Aigner 2019). This identification is “confirmed” by its biological features: the growing season being between 140 and 180 days, it matures rapidly — approximately five to six months after sowing.

Physiology, shade providing plant. In its early stages of growth, Ricinus communis grows straight up, to a height of between 10 and 13 meters. It then develops branches that transform it into a well-proportioned shrub with sturdy stems and a dense canopy Its height, relatively large leaves (Rana et al. 2012), and wide canopy all provide good shade.

Plant-insect interactions. The Ricinus toxicity and worm-feeding capacities as per the description in Jonah have drawn much scientific interest. The present-day Israeli tiger moth (Olepa schleini), which regularly infests the Ricinus communis, closely matches the biblical account. Nevertheless, the leaves of the plant are also the preferred food source of the Asian silkworm (Samia cynthia ricini) in India. Both these organisms thus correspond to the biblical depiction of the Ricinus communis worm infestation (Franke, Scholl, & Aigner 2019).

Pollination and dispersal. Ricinus communis is majorly cross-pollinated, the pollen from a male flower on one plant being carried to the pistil of a female flower on another. Male flowers senesce shortly after shedding their pollen, customarily opening several days before their female counterparts. This separation in time promotes cross-pollination vs. self-pollination (Navatha & Sreedevi 2012). Although primarily wind pollinated, insect pollination is also evidenced (Navatha & Sreedevi 2012), studies demonstrating that R. communis attracts bees, ants, butterflies, shield bugs, and flies (Navatha & Sreedevi 2012).

Successful pollination leads to the formation of seed-bearing fruit whose spiny coats adhere to animal fur, thereby facilitating quick dispersal across great distances (Goyal, Pardha-Saradhi, & Sharma 2014). Although primarily self-dispersed, the seeds are also spread by ants (Martins et al. 2006), who feed the elaiosome

Pollination and Dispersal. Ricinus communis is majorly cross-pollinated, the pollen from a male flower on one plant being carried to the pistil of a female flower on another. Male flowers senesce shortly after shedding their pollen, customarily opening several days before their female counterparts. This separation in time promotes cross-pollination vs. self-pollination (Navatha & Sreedevi 2012). Although primarily wind pollinated, insect pollination is also evidenced (Navatha & Sreedevi 2012), studies demonstrating that R. communis attracts bees, ants, butterflies, shield bugs, and flies (Navatha & Sreedevi 2012).

Successful pollination leads to the formation of seed-bearing fruit whose spiny coats adhere to animal fur, thereby facilitating quick dispersal across great distances (Goyal, Pardha-Saradhi, & Sharma 2014). Although primarily self-dispersed, the seeds are also spread by ants (Martins et al. 2006), who feed the elaiosome—a nutritious appendage—to their larvae. The remaining seed is discarded in the nest’s midden, providing optimal conditions for later germination (Figueiral et al. 2021).

Agricultural Aspects. Ricinus communis’s primary economic value lies in its seed oil (46‒55%), used in many modern items—e.g. high-quality lubricants, hydraulic fluids, paints, dyes, coatings, inks, cold resistant plastics, waxes, polishes, nylon, feedstock for fuels, etc. Its products are regarded as more useful than petrochemicals due to their low toxicity, providing more energy and being more environmentally friendly and biodegradable (Arif et al. 2015; Figueiral et al. 2021). R. communis is also valuable for its phytoremediation qualities (Greek phyto [plant] + Latin remedium [remedy]). Growing rapidly in heavily polluted soils while accumulating metal ions therefrom into its tissues, it serves both as an important economic crop and as a phytoremediator in soil contaminated by heavy metal (Huang et al. 2011).

Ethnobotanical Uses. The seeds containing ricin – a naturally highly-toxic compound – Ricinus communis has a long history as a traditional form medicine. As reflected in papyric evidence – in particular the Ebers Papyrus – the ancient Egyptians cultivated it ca. 6,000 years ago as a natural antibiotic, laxative, wound dressing (Fallström 2014), lamp oil, and embalming oil. The Assyrians used it in childbearing, mixing the oil with beer and applying it over the abdomen in the region of the uterus in order to stimulate contractions (Figueiral et al. 2021). The Aztecs later used it to treat constipation (Gaginella et al. 1998). Traditionally employed as a fertilizer and fungicide, Ricinus was also known for its anti-oxidant, anti-histamic, anti-diabetic, anti-fertility, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and other medicinal properties (Jena & Gupta 2012). Intriguingly, the Mishnah prohibits the use of castor bean oil (shemen qiq) for Sabbath candles (m. Šhab. 2:1) amongst other proscribed either because they might prompt performance of a forbidden type of work or because they are not in keeping with the deference the day requires.

Morphological Characteristics

The plant can reach up to 10–13 meters in height and live for 2‒3 years (Arif et al. 2015; Franke, Scholl, & Aigner 2019). Being a monoecious plant, Ricinus communis bears both male and female flowers on the same plant (Rana et al. 2012).

Leaves. It has large, palmate, red/purple-colored leaves (Figueiral et al. 2021; Rana et al. 2012).

Flowers. Its large, mono-sexual (i.e. male and female) flowers grow on the same plant, the male flowers lying at the base of inflorescence and the female flowers at the top of the inflorescence. The male flowers wither after producing pollen (Figueiral et al. 2021; Franke, Scholl, & Aigner 2019; Rana et al. 2012).

Fruit. The small, greenish capsules (up to 2.5cm long) fruit are covered with soft prickles that enable adhesive seed dispersal by means of animal fur. When dry, they split into three parts, thereby allowing the seeds to disperse (Figueiral et al. 2021; Rana et al. 2012).

Seeds. Between 0.5 and 2cm in length, the oval, beanlike seeds are light brown in color mottled with dark-brown spots. The outer coating containing the toxin ricin, hence, they are poisonous. The oily outgrowth of the seed coat known as the elaiosome (Greek élaion [oil] and sóma [body]), attracts ants who carry the seeds to their nests to feed their larvae, since the elaiosome is rich in oils, sugars, proteins, and vitamins. The remainder of seed is then discarded and dispersed (Figueiral et al. 2021; Franke, Scholl, & Aigner 2019; Rana et al. 2012).

Distribution and Habitat

Current distribution map of Ricinus communis. Taken from www.gbif.org. In this map each point represents the number of species occurrence records. Darker colored points indicate more occurrences.

Ricinus communis is native to eastern Africa, India, and the south-east Mediterranean (Figueiral et al. 2021). It is considered to be an invasive species found across the world today (Goyal, Pardha-Saradhi, & Sharma 2014), commonly growing in ruderal areas, disturbed habitats (construction-site fringes, river banks, road sides, etc.), and irrigated places (e.g. gardens and fields; Goyal, Pardha-Saradhi, & Sharma 2014; Rana et al. 2012). Due to its extensive industrial use, R. communis is largely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas, serving as an ornamental plant in more temperate regions (Figueiral et al. 2021).

Arif, M. et al. 2015. “Estimating Spatial Population Structure through Quantification of Oil Content and Phenotypic Diversity in Pakistani Castor Bean (Ricinus communis L.) Germplasm.” Science, Technology and Development 34: 147‒54.

Fallström, S. 2014. “Ricinus communis L. Varieties: Taxonomical Description.” MA thesis, Helsingfors Universitet.

Figueiral I. et al. 2021. “(Sub)urban Gardens from Provence (Southern France, 14th–17th century) and the Presence of Ricinus communis.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 30: 313–29.

Franke, H., R. Scholl and A. Aigner. 2019. “Ricin and Ricinus communis in Pharmacology and Toxicology: From Ancient Use and ‘Papyrus Ebers’ to Modern Perspectives and ‘Poisonous Plant of the Year 2018’.” Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology 392: 1181–8.

Gaginella, T. S., F. Capasso, N. Mascolo, & S. Perilli. 1998. “Castor Oil: New Lessons from an Ancient Oil.” Phytotherapy Research 12: S128–30.

Goyal, N., P. Pardha-Saradhi and G. P. Sharma. 2014. “Can Adaptive Modulation of Traits to Urban Environments Facilitate Ricinus communis L. Invasiveness?” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 186: 7941–48.

Huang, H. et al. 2011. “The Phytoremediation Potential of Bioenergy Crop Ricinus communis for DDTs and Cadmium Co-contaminated Soil.” Bioresource Technology 102: 11034–38.

Janick, J., H. S. Paris and D. C. Parrish. 2007. “The Cucurbits of Mediterranean Antiquity: Identification of Taxa from Ancient Images and Descriptions.” Annals of Botany 100: 1441–57.

Jena, J., & A. K. Gupta. 2012. “Ricinus communis Linn: A Phytopharmacological Review.” International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences 4: 25‒29.

Martins, V. F. et al. 2006. “Secondary Seed Dispersal by Ants of Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) in the Atlantic Forest in Southeastern Brazil: Influence on Seed Germination.” Sociobiology 47: 1‒10.

Navatha, L. and K. Sreedevi. 2012. “Insect Pollinator Diversity and Abundance in Castor, Ricinus communis L.” Current Biotica 6: 251‒53.

Rana M. et al. 2012. “Ricinus communis L.: A Review.” International Journal of PharmTech Research 4: 1706‒11.